Judy Chicago, Feminist Artist and Art Collaborator

Judy Chicago, Feminist Artist and Art Collaborator   Judy Chicago is known for her  feminist art installations, including The Dinner Party: A Symbol of Our Heritage,  The Birth Project,  and  Holocaust Project: From Darkness into Light. Also known for feminist art critique and education. She was born on July 20, 1939.   Early Years Born Judy Sylvia Cohen in the city of Chicago, her father was a union organizer and her mother a medical secretary.   She earned her B.A. in 1962 and M.A. in 1964 at the University of California. Her first marriage in 1961 was to Jerry Gerowitz, who died in 1965.   Art Career She was part of a modernist and minimalist trend in the art movement.   She began to be more political and especially feminist in her work. In 1969, she began an art class for women at Fresno State. That same year, she formally changed her name to Chicago, leaving behind her birth name and her first married name.In 1970, she married Lloyd Hamrol. She moved over the next year to the California Institute of Arts where she worked to begin a Feminist Art Program.   This project was the source of Womanhouse, an art installation that transformed a fixer-upper house into a feminist message. She worked with  Miriam Schapiro  on this project.  Womanhouse combined the efforts of female artists learning traditionally male skills to renovate the house, and then using traditionally female skills in the art and participating in feminist consciousness-raising. The Dinner Party Remembering the words of a history professor at UCLA that women were not influences in European intellectual history, she began working on a major art project to remember women’s achievements. The Dinner Party, which took from 1974 to 1979 to complete, honored hundreds of women through history. The main part of the project was a triangular dinner table with 39 place settings each representing a female figure from history. Another 999 women have their names written on the floor of the installation on porcelain tiles. Using ceramics, embroidery, quilting, and weaving, she deliberately chose media often identified with women and treated as less than art.   She used many artists to actualize the work. The Dinner Party was exhibited in 1979, then toured and was seen by 15 million. The work challenged many who saw it to continue to learn about the unfamiliar names they encountered in the art work. While working on the installation, she published her autobiography in 1975.   She divorced in 1979. The Birth Project Judy Chicago’s next major project centered around images of women giving birth, honoring pregnancy, childbirth, and mothering.   She engaged 150 women artists creating panels for the installation, again using traditional women’s crafting, especially embroidery, with weaving, crochet, needlepoint, and other methods.   By picking both a woman-centered topic, and women’s traditional crafts, and using a cooperative model for creating the work, she embodied feminism in the project. The Holocaust Project Again working in a democratic manner, organizing and overseeing the work but decentralizing the tasks, she began work in 1984 on another installation, this one to focus on the experience of the Jewish Holocaust from the perspective of her experience as a woman and Jew. She traveled extensively in the Middle East and Europe to research for the work and to record her personal reactions to what she found.   The â€Å"incredibly dark† project took her eight years. She married photographer Donald Woodman in 1985. She published Beyond the Flower, a second part to her own life story. Later Work In 1994, she began another decentralized project. Resolutions for the Millennium joined oil painting and needlework.   The work celebrated seven values: Family, Responsibility, Conservation, Tolerance, Human Rights, Hope, and Change. In 1999, she began teaching again, moving each semester to a new setting. She wrote another book, this with Lucie-Smith, on the images of women in art. The Dinner Party was in storage from the early 1980s, except for one display in 1996.   In 1990, the University of the District of Columbia developed plans to install the work there, and Judy Chicago donated the work to the university. But newspaper articles about the sexual explicitness of the art led the trustees to cancel the installation. In 2007 The Dinner Party was permanently installed at the Brooklyn Museum, New York, in the Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art. Books by Judy Chicago Through the Flower: My Struggle as a Woman Artist,  (autobiography), introduction by Anais Nin, 1975, 1982, 1993.  The Dinner Party: A Symbol of Our Heritage,   1979,  The Dinner Party: Restoring Women to History, 2014.Embroidering Our Heritage: The Dinner Party Needlework,  1980.The Complete Dinner Party: The Dinner Party and Embroidering Our Heritage,1981.The Birth Project,  1985.Holocaust Project: From Darkness into Light,  1993.Beyond the Flower: The Autobiography of a Feminist Artist,  1996.(With Edward Lucie-Smith)  Women and Art: Contested Territory,   1999.Fragments from the Delta of Venus,  2004.Kitty City: A Feline Book of Hours,   2005.(With Frances Borzello)  Frida Kahlo: Face to Face,   2010.Institutional Time: A Critique of Studio Art Education,   2014. Selected Judy Chicago Quotations Because we are denied knowledge of our history, we are deprived of standing upon each others shoulders and building upon each others hard earned accomplishments. Instead we are condemned to repeat what others have done before us and thus we continually reinvent the wheel. The goal of The Dinner Party is to break this cycle. I believe in art that is connected to real human feeling, that extends itself beyond the limits of the art world to embrace all people who are striving for alternatives in an increasingly dehumanized world. I am trying to make art that relates to the deepest and most mythic concerns of human kind and I believe that, at this moment of history, feminism is humanism.   About The Birth Project:  These values were oppositional in that they challenged many prevailing ideas as to what art was to be about (female rather than male experience), how it was to be made (in an empowering, co-operative method rather than a competitive, individualistic mode) and what materials were to be employed in creating it (any that seemed appropriate, irrespective of what socially constructed gender associations a particular media might be perceived to have).   About The Holocaust Project:  A lot of survivors committed suicide. Then you must make a choiceare you going to succumb to the darkness or choose life? Its a Jewish mandate to choose life. You shouldnt have to justify your work. I began to wonder about the ethical distinction between processing pigs and doing the same thing to people defined as pigs. Many would argue that moral considerations do not have to be extended to animals, but this is just what the Nazis said about the Jews.   Andrea Neal, editorial writer (October 14, 1999):  Judy Chicago is obviously more exhibitionist than artist. And that raises a question: is this what a great public university should support?

Turning a Lifes Work into a Book †By Sallyann Della Casa

Turning a Lifes Work into a Book - By Sallyann Della Casa Turning a Life's Work into a Book - An Interview with Sallyann Della Casa Literary pursuits and social action come together naturally  in  Sallyann Della Casa's world. Being a pioneer in using the written word to draw attention to her entrepreneurial work, she has unique lessons to share. We were very excited to find out more about her decision to work with Reedsy editors while being associated with a traditional publishing house. Whether you're a writer or a business leader looking for interesting ways to talk about what you do, there's a lot here for everyone.  Hi Sallyann, thanks for being with us today! You are the author of Who Will I Become, and the founder of the Growing Leaders Foundation. Can you tell us a bit about the book,  and its link to the foundation?The book, WHO WILL I BECOME, is a visual roadmap of the Foundation’s leadership work to  date. This first edition focuses on the Caribbean region where the Foundation started (my place  of birth). The 2nd edition will focus on the Middle East region. The photography and inspi ring  words are meant to incite storytelling between youths and adults as they explore instances  where the directed and thought provoking words may apply or could apply to their own lives,  past and future.The concept of the book has existed since 2010 when I created the Foundation. I wrote the  Love Letter to a Leader of Tomorrow back then, and it has never changed, meaning the entire  book is designed around this love letter we all deserve to receive in our lifetime.Books have always been my most reliable, consistent mentor. I wanted to create one that  could give the wisdom of generations to youths and adults who may have lost their way, from all  cultures. This is why there will be 7 versions of the book to represent various regions of the  world as I explore their cultures and what leadership feels and looks like for each. "Books have always been my most reliable, consistent mentor."@SallyannDC Author Sallyann Della Casa holding her book Who Will I BecomeComing from a tiny Caribbean island, Trinidad and Tobago, with only 1.3 million people and a  limited budget, a book is a terrific way to create a legacy for the Foundation, secure an income  stream (we are a social enterprise and not donor dependent) and also continue our impact -   each book gives the reader access to our leadership lessons through a unique code which they  can utilize on their own to help us grow leaders in their own communities.You’ve embraced the concept of a â€Å"book as a business card†, how did it work out for  you? What impact has the book had so far on your foundation?I recently wrote an article about this in Arabian Business, i.e. a book being the new business  card. I think in the world we live in today, we are super keen to learn more about the texture of  others; their worldview, their value system, etc. It is for this reason that we have such a huge  infatuation with each other’s content through social media, blogs and all. There is no better way to transfer your knowledge, experiences and/or diverse content other than through a book. There is just something about a book that gives roots to what you need to say to the world, how  you feel, who you are and what you stand for. I think everyone is a biography and a book waiting to happen and if we live our lives knowing this... just imagine the possibilities for each  and every one of us.With regards to me personally, the fact that I am now a published author is rewarding on so  many levels. As a lover of books, having my own is mind boggling. I also get photos and emails  from all over the world about how my book has changed someone’s life or impacted someone  else. You cannot even imagine what that feels like to read one of those emails. "I think everyone is a biography and a book waiting to happen" @SallyannDC Recently, I went on a book tour and visited classrooms in the Caribbean using the book and the  kids went berzerk, asking me for autographs not only on their books, but all over their clothing  and school bags, sweaters etc. It truly is the most powerful feeling ever to spark something  deep within another that awakens their potential. How blessed am I really to be the chosen  vehicle for a book that does this really magical thing?In terms of the Foundation, the book not only generated steady income but I have literally now  allowed anyone who purchases the book to access our leadership lessons for youths and  adults. This allows them to light their own candles in the world and allows the Foundation to  increase the outcome of our work tenfold by empowering others with our tools.What would be your top tips for other business or foundation owners when it comes to  writing a book (or having it ghostwritten) and publishing it?We all have something to teach and/or a story to tell... so share it out loud in a book. I say this  especially to those of us in the area of making this world a better place. You simply do not know how what you are doing or what you know can lift up another, give knowledge or inspire courage. In today’s publishing world, you can easily design, write and publish a book on your own. The traditional publishing way of needing an agent and a publisher has been turned on its head There are so many resources to help you do it right.I am now working on my second book, a 50,000+ word full manuscript which is very different  from my first book. To say it is hard, especially given I have no writing experience whatsoever,  would be an understatement. But I was really fortunate in that a publisher, Jaico Books, noticed  my work and approached me to write an adult audience leadership book. So I encourage you to  keep writing and putting your content out there in the world since you never know who may  notice.So you’re with a traditional publisher, but you still came to Reedsy to find an  independent editor to work with. What was the reason for that?Yes, normally a traditional publisher does all the editorial reviews for a book; especially if they  approached you to write it. In my case I came to Reedsy for three reasons.First I wanted a different persp ective on my book. My publisher is focused on the Indian market  but I want my book to have international appeal, so I was looking for diverse feedback.  Also, I have to admit I was a bit insecure about some of my writing. Before submitting some  chapters to my publisher, I chose to get a lot of help and feedback from my Reedsy editors. It was super affordable and I figured I had nothing to lose to get a next set of eyes on my work.I was very open to my publisher about having outside editors looking at my work. And they  actually noticed and complimented me on the huge difference in the chapters being submitted;  so it really worked out for me.Most importantly, my confidence is up and I have found my mojo and grit to keep writing away  to complete this second book within the next month so we can see it on bookshelves in 2017. "The three reasons why I came to Reedsy while working with a traditional publisher" @SallyannDC You’ve hired two editors through Reedsy: Maria D’Marco and Dick Hill: did you notice  any differences in their methods, or in the things they picked up?Dick and Maria are both wonderful and different as night and day in their approaches. Dick is  very methodical doing word ­-for-word editing. He does not touch the shape of the work but he  cleans up the grammar so it all makes perfect sense i.e. he has been super helpful in clearing  up what I want to say without disturbing my work. He is also very professor- ­like and I almost feel  like I have a babysitter that keeps me writing.Maria is extremely different in that she confidently pokes holes in the work and makes  suggestions or asks questions. She causes you to wonder if the shape of your work is correct or  if it should be round or square in certain parts. She forces you to think through what you are  writing or meaning to say. This is super helpful to me since she adds light and allows air into the  work. I am saving a lot of her comments for my final manuscript where I will have the full  editorial review from my publisher. I have a feeling this is where I will get a full appreciation of  how brilliant Maria actually is. Maria is also so positive and encouraging... she actually made me feel like I am writing a bestseller of sorts!We know you cannot wait, get yourself a copy of  Who Will I Become here.Did Sallyann's experiences seem familiar to you? Let her know, join the conversation by leaving your  thoughts, comments, or questions below.

Court History and Purpose Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Court History and Purpose - Essay Example In the United States of America, courts are organized into two systems; the state and federal court systems. In this respect, the U.S. court system is organized in dual or has a two-tier structure as noted by Siegel, Schmalleger and Worrall (2011). The state courts have the responsibility of hearing cases that do not involve the federal government or several states. The two tier system historically came about as original colonies surrendered their independence to the central government while maintaining jurisdictional distinction. The development of courts in the U.S. is a result of several factors. Some of the elements that have played a role in court development in this respect include common law, early legal codes, and precedent (Siegel, Schmalleger & Worrall, 2011). Common law tradition that is applicable in the U.S. today originated in England (law.berkeley.edu., 2012). This tradition was applied in British colonies in the middle ages. On the other hand, civil law tradition orig inated in the same period in continental Europe. The tradition was applied in European colonies including Portugal and Spain and later was adopted by numerous countries including Japan and Russia. Civil law systems have legal codes that are comprehensive and that are constantly updated. Civil law outlines the framework within which judges work and make rulings with legal scholars and legislators playing the more critical roles in the system. Civil law originated in Latin and was applicable to all citizens of Rome. In time, ancient Roman law principles were adopted by Europeans in an effort to meet modern needs (Stein, 2009). With the practice of civil law in Europe became common practice, local customs found a significant role as a basis for the development of law. The U.S. legal system is firmly grounded on common law tradition as practiced in England in the early days (law.berkeley.edu., 2012). In as much as common law relies on a few statutes, most decisions made in this respect are based on precedent. This means that the courts today make decisions on issues based on similar cases that have been decided in the past. Generally uncodified, common law has been practiced in courts based on court records, and year books. As an example, Louisiana state law is founded on civil law (codified law) owing to the fact that the state was previously a territory for the Spanish and French (law.berkeley.edu., 2012). California on the other hand has a state civil code that is based on traditional Roman civil law although the law as practiced is mostly common law. The state’s current community property law, for example, is based on the legal customs of ancient Spain as opposed to English common law (law.berkeley.edu., 2012). As can be seen from the examples given above, the common and civil law traditions as applied in the U.S. courts have a rich history and are associated with ancient foundations of modern law. Role of courts in criminal justice Criminal justice enc ompasses the set of government institutions and practices that are dedicated to the maintenance of social order, crime prevention, and sanctioning of those who contravene the law. While several organizations and government agencies form part of the criminal justice system, one of the main players in this respect is the court. The court plays a major function in criminal justice system. The separation of the roles of elements of the criminal

Observations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Observations - Essay Example Not only are these meals delicious, they are also nutritious and made from the finest and freshest ingredients. Likewise, these meals are served in high quality presentation that adds to the savory appeal. Concurrently, the staffs are very courteous, as they all serve customers with a sunny disposition. With a friendly smile, these personnel are noticed to be effectively trained in customer service, as well as in ensuring that the client’s diverse needs are addressed. In addition, the restaurant’s environment is just remarkable. The premises are maintained in pristine condition with cleanliness adhered to the highest levels. Also, management ensured that there are services that could be availed by other loyal clients who would like food to be pre-ordered and taken out. I observed that they have the Carside to Go service which enables customers to order online and drive to the nearest Applebee store to pick-up the food immediately. Overall, dining at Applebee’s is indeed a memorable and happy experience where customers would look forward to the next

Comparison of the poems Half-caste and Not My Business Essay Example for Free

Comparison of the poems Half-caste and Not My Business Essay John Agard and Niyi Osundare have both written poems that protest about events or attitudes of people. Agard is From the Caribbean where the population is made up of people from lots of different races. Therefore he is used to being around people of mixed race and will know from first hand experience how horrible it can be to be called only half a person. Osundare has got a good point to make here which is that if people see something going on that is wrong but does not directly involve them, they should do what they can to stop the wrong doing rather than leave it as it may well be them someday and there could be no one to save them. You never know. The first poem is about the term Half-Caste which the poet: John Agard, objects to as he thinks that it makes us think of people of mixed race as only half a person instead of a whole person or individual. The next poem Not My Business is about the violence used by the state authorities against the people of Nigeria. The poet: Niyi Osundare believes that you should stand up for what is right, regardless of whether it bothers you at that specific time. Not My Business is said to echo this statement: First they came for the socialists, and I did not speak out because I was not a socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak because I was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews and I did not speak because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me and there was no one left to speak for me. The statement is by Pastor Martin Niemoller it is very much like the poem Not My Business not only because of what is said, but also because of how it is structured. In the first three stanzas what is happening is happening to someone else, not the narrator. However in the last stanza what is happening is happening to the person in the story, either I or the Narrator. In Half-Caste The poet want us to realize that the term is such a stupid one and he wants the people who use it to realize this and change their attitudes towards people of mixed race. Also the structure of the poem is good as he uses humour at the beginning to catch the readers attention and then explains the stupidity of the term. Osundare believes that it is peoples indifference and detachment from what is going on around them that is allowing the terror to go on. The repeated phrase about what business of his is it is indented which shows a distance from what is going on or a detachment. Agard writes phonetically as to the way he would speak the poem, it is one of those poems that needs to be spoken to get the full meaning. He speaks in a patois and uses calypso rhythm and rhyme, which is an example of how English and African dialects have combined and are now a key feature of the poets Caribbean culture. Not My Business uses a repeated phrase which is just saying What business of mine is it etc. This is also indented and therefore shows distance from what is going on in the paragraph. This use of language is a good way to show this distance. This poem says a lot about peoples cultures, not only Nigeria, but people are like this all over the world, and it says a lot that people wont stick up for what is right just so long as it does not bother them. Both of these poems had a lot to say and they have said it in a strong and down to earth kind of way. The first used humour to get peoples attention and then had a go about the term Half-caste. However the second just used three examples and then showed that a problem will get much worse if it is left and oppressive regimes are not nice things and people need to stick up and fight against them!

The Weary Blues and Lenox Avenue: Midnight :: essays research papers

â€Å"The Weary Blues† and â€Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight† by Langston Hughes are two poems written as scenes of urban life. Although these poems were written more than seventy years ago, it is surprising to see some general similarities they share with modern day city life. Dilluted down with word play and irrelevant lines such as â€Å"And the gods are laughing at us.†, the underlying theme is evidently urban life. â€Å"The Weary Blues† and â€Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight† approach the general topic of urban life from two different aspects also.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Weary Blues† speaks of a person hearing a Negro playing the blues on a piano â€Å"Down on Lenox Avenue the other night,†. The poem is centered around this event, explaining â€Å"He did a lazy sway†¦He did a lazy sway†¦Ã¢â‚¬  It seems that Hughes was addressing the common link of Negro’s, urban life, and the blues music seventy years ago; quite a different approach than his other work.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight†, my personal favorite of the two, is more of an outlook on urban life back then, stating that â€Å"The Rhythm of life/ Is a jazzy rhythm,†. There is an uneasy connection between urban life itself and the blues music that was so common during that time in that urban life itself is nothing but the blues and that â€Å"the gods are laughing at us.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight† is a more meaningful poem, reaching out to anyone that could relate. In a way it relates to modern day hip-hop in the sense of reaching out to the common people of that culture and time. â€Å"The Weary Blues† on the other hand is more of an observation thing going on in the poem, observing the Negro man playing the blues on his piano. The poems indirectly relate to modern day city life. Instead of the blues, hip-hop has taken its place.

What Do I Want to Be When I Grow Up

Ever since I was small, people always ask me â€Å"What do you want to be when you grow up? † I used crayons to illustrate my dream career. My drawing was hung in the hallways for my parents to see. I remember the typical careers of my kindergarden class- ballerinas, firefighters, singers, and astronauts. I remembered mine. My picture showed a stick figure with black hair holding a mic. Underneath the beautiful drawing, I wrote â€Å"When I grow up, I want to be a singer. To this day I can still remember my youth self wanting to sing and perform on a big stage. When I was younger, questions like this were asked very often. I answered these types of questions with silliness, never thought it was likely to come true. However, as I am getting older, I realized that now I'm suppose to answer this question with confidence and mean what I say. Teenagers are expected to know exactly what they want to be and should be able to give good reasons why. Now that I am a teenager, I still d on't exactly know what I want to be.Doctors, lawyers, dentists, business managers are all great jobs; however, I don't think my parents or any parents in fact, had ever sat down with their children and ask them â€Å"What do you want to be when you grow up? † If I have to answer this question, I would say â€Å"happy†. All I want to do in my grown up life is to be happy. In my opinion, if you hate your career, it's mostly unlikely for you to enjoy it. The fun part of being an adult is that you get to choose who you want to be and make your own decisions.Happiness isn't something you can buy with money. I feel like society today is all about money. The so called â€Å"good† jobs are usually the jobs that make the most money. I know money is pretty powerful, but it still has its limits. Money can't buy us happiness nor health. In my opinion, being happy isn't as easy to achieve as people think. Sometimes, it is even possible for happiness to spread. Being happy is n't going to be easy in any way, sometimes people underestimate the power of happiness. Therefore, my dream for now is to be happy when I grow up.But my ultimate goal in my life is to make everyone around me happy, I want to bring happiness in the people I love. I don't have a specific plan to determine how I'm going to make everyone happy but all I know now is that if you are not happy yourself, no one around will be happy. Happiness is a destination for everyone. We may want to try different paths in life, but I think we all want to be happy wherever we end up. Life is rough sometimes, but if you are optimistic about it, you will concur your failure. Happiness.

Imaging System Division Essay

3 of them were: * Imaging System Division (ISD) sold ultrasound and magnetic imaging system * Heidelberg Division (Heidelberg) sold high resolution monitors, graphics controllers and display subsystems 50% served ISD, 50% outside customer * Electronic Component Division (ECD) sold application specific integrated circuits and subassemblies. It was established as a captive supplier to other Zumwald divisions but now served outsider also * Total revenue â‚ ¬ 3 billion * Highly decentralized basis management * Division performance indicators were achievement of budgeted target Return on Invested Capital (ROIC) and sales growth * Partially vertical integrated * Each division allowed to outsource the component Imaging System Division (ISD) is going to launch new product namely X73 The characteristic of X73 was as follow: * It was a new ultrasound Imaging system * The product was faster, cheaper and more compact * Design was supported by Heidelberd division’s engineers at full cost of time compensation. To get a best price for its component, ISD did a bidding which involved Heidelberg. Unfortunately Heidelberg bidding price was much higher than outsider company, therefore ISD decided to buy from Display Technology Plc Here is the bidding: Supplier | Cost per X73 System (â‚ ¬) | Heidelberg Division | 140,000 | Bogardus NV | 120,000 | Display Technologies Plc | 100,500 | The decision triggered a dispute since Heidleberg felt that ISD did not show a team work in this case. 1. What sourcing decision for the X73 materials is in the best interest of a. The Imaging Systems Division? Base on the pricing structure X73 below are the calculation of Contribution Margin base on each suppliers’ bidding price: Item| Bidding Supplier| | Heidelberd| Bogardus| Display Tech| Price X 73| 340,000 | 340,000 | 340,000 | | | | | Direct Material| 140,000 | 120,000 | 100,500 | Other Component| 72,000 | 72,000 | 72,000 | Conversion cost| | | | Variable overhead| 27,000 | 27,000 | 27,000 | Fixed cost| 117,000 | 117,000 | 117,000 | | | | | Total cost| 356,000 | 336,000 | 316,500 | | | | | Profit Margin| (16,000)| 4,000 | 23,500 | In this case Display Tech is the best sourcing for ISD since by pricing at 340,000 per unit of X73, ISD would get highest profit compared to other offers. Heidelberg offered its standard price to ISD which would give ISD negative profit. b. The Heidelberg Division? In bidding, Heidelberg has to estimate how its competitors bid prices would be before determining its price. Hiedelber has to put only relevant cost plus a certain markup for profit to win. Bidding is a close price offer and the ethic is clear that there should be no more negotiation after the price opened. The proper price bidding for X 73 Heidelberg offers should be as follow: Item| Heidelberg| | Current Bid| Competitive Bid| Direct Material| 21,600 | 21,600 | | | | Conversion cost| | | Variable overhead| 28,400 | 28,400 | Fixed cost| 55,000 | | | | | Total cost| 105,000 | 50,000 | | | | Markup (33%)| 35,000 | 16,500 | | | | Price to Offer| 140,000 | 66,500 | Fixed cost which consisted of labor cost was not relevant cost for the bidding price since even Heidelberg awarded for X73 or not, Heidelberg should pay it anyway. As its capacity currently was 70%, there was no opportunity cost to be added. Therefore the actual lower bound Heidelberg could offer was â‚ ¬ 50,000. However that price would give zero profit to Heidelberg. To make the profit positive, Heidelberd could do some markup (eg. 33%). This profit was beneficial for Heidelberg to cover some fixed cost. c. The Electronic Components Division? ECD has been set as internal supplier whose pricing has been standardized to that purpose. with 20% marked up from Absorption cost. This was actually the proper transfer pricing for the company in supplying to other division. Item| ECD Current| | | Manufacturing cost | 18,000 | | | Profit Margin (20%) | 3,600 | | | Price Component for X 73 | 21,600 | | | d. Zumwald AG? Since Display Tech was the one who win bidding, from the launching of X73, Zumwald would get profit only from ISD Division amounting of â‚ ¬ 23,500, as describe on the Calculation below Item| Supplier | | Display Tech| Price X 73| 340,000 | | | Direct Material| 100,500 | Other Component| 72,000 | Conversion cost| | Variable overhead| 27,000 | Fixed cost| 117,000 | | | Total cost| 316,500 | | | Profit Margin| 23,500 | There are 2 more calculation scenario we could add if Heidelberg win the bid: 1. Heidelberg and ECD with current price offer Item| ISD| Heidelberg| ECD| Total| | | | | | Price X 73 & component| 340,000| 140,000| 21,600| | | | | | | Direct Material| 140,000| 21,600| | 161,600| Other Component| 72,000| | | 72,000| Conversion cost| | | 18,000| 18,000| Variable overhead| 27,000| 28,400| | 55,400| Fixed cost| 117,000| | | 117,000| | | | | | Total cost| 356,000| 50,000| 18,000| 424,000| | | | | | Profit Margin| (16,000)| 90,000| 3,600| 77,600| 2. Heidelberg & EDC with Transfer price, Price X73 = â‚ ¬ 340,000 Item| ISD| Heidelberg| ECD| Total| | | | | | Price X 73 & component| 340,000 | 66,500 | 21,600 | | | | | | | Direct Material| 66,500 | 21,600 | | 88,100 | Other Component| 72,000 | | | 72,000 | Conversion cost| | | | – | Variable overhead| 27,000 | 28,400 | | 55,400 | Fixed cost| 117,000 | | | 117,000 | | | | | | Total cost| 282,500 | 50,000 | 18,000 | 350,500 | | | | | | Profit Margin| 57,500 | 16,500 | 3,600 | 77,600 | Analysis: 1. For Zumwald AG it was important for Hedielberg to win the bidding, since it would generate more profit either Heidelberg offered current price or transfer price, 2. With first scenario ISD division would suffer for a â‚ ¬16,000 lost 3. If Display Tech win, Zumwald would lost â‚ ¬ 54,100 (â‚ ¬77,600 – 23,500) profit 4. The first scenario it looked ISD would be the loser but in second scenario ISD would generate biger profit (assuming X73 would be priced at â‚ ¬ 340,000) 5. With the second scenario, ISD actually could review the X73’s price it’s, since the transfer cost allowed ISD to lower the price so that X73 could better compete in the market 6. Vertical integration rules should be set up and applied in Zumwald AG 2. What should Mr. Fettinger do regarding the X73 sourcing issue? Considering some factors as mentioned below: a. ICD has announced Display Tech as the winner. b. There was a decentralized policy among the division that Fettinger has to be respect for c. Credibility issue of the company in the eyes of outside suppliers if Fettinger intervene in this case by changing the decision and winning Heidelberg Mr Fettinger should let ICD to source its X73 component to Display Tech as the winner. It could become a learning for him and management. However this consideration should not base on the amount of the business which was estimated to be small, because in my opinion for a competitive product such as X73, pricing was one of important part to success. If ICD could get any better price from other division, ICD may consider a lower price to the market X73 and the revenue may be double or triple. Then Mr Fettinger has to gather his division heads with a standard policy on transfer price among the divisions. 3. Can a system be designed to motivate each of Zumwald’s division managing directors to take actions that are not only in the interest of their division but also in the best interest of Zumwald? Explain. It can. The Top Management should set a TRANSFER PRICES for internally transferred goods. However in decentralized organization such as Zumwald AG, the managing directors and his teams often have considerable autonomy in deciding whether to accept or reject orders or whether to buy inputs from inside the organization or from outside. Therefore the transfer pricing rule should promote a GOAL CONGRUENCE among the managing directors involved in the transfer Please refer to the schematic below: Top Management Zumwald AG ECD Heidelberg ISD Components transferred at a transfer price Components transferred at a transfer price Assuming the transfer price is made, the transfer price will not affect the company’s overall profit, however it does affect the profit associated with each division. As a consequence, the trasnfer pricing policy can affect the decisions of autonomous managing directors who are deciding whether to make the transfer Purchase of productive inputs from vendors outside the organization Sales of finished goods to customers outside the organization Top Management Zumwald AG ECD Heidelberg ISD Components transferred at a transfer price Components transferred at a transfer price Assuming the transfer price is made, the transfer price will not affect the company’s overall profit, however it does affect the profit associated with each division. As a consequence, the trasnfer pricing policy can affect the decisions of autonomous managing directors who are deciding whether to make the transfer Purchase of productive inputs from vendors outside the organization Sales of finished goods to customers outside the organization There are general rules that will promote Goal congruence which are divided into scenario: 1. No excess capacity The transfer price = Outlay cost + Opportunity cost Outlay cost : standard variable production cost Opportunity cost : forgone contribution margin from the lost sales Goal congruence maintain because the selling company transfer its product to another division at equal price as if it sells to external customers. The buyer division just needs to pay for the above relevant costs. While Zumwald AG as the holding company would get benefit from both. 2. With Excess Capacity Transfer price= Outlay costs (no opportunity cost to add) Outlay cost : standard variable production cost General congruence: * The seller will get zero contribution since it sells the product at its outlay cost, to make it goal congruence it is advisable to allow the seller to add a markup to this lower bound in order to provide a positive contribution margin * The buyer will get price at outlay costs which allow it to price lower to compete the market * The Holding company off course would get more beneficial since the both division could get profit. In this case if the transfer price policy applied among Zumwald AG’s divisions, actually the bidding is only away to compare or there is no need to do bidding at all. Heidelberg should use the above formula plus a reasonable markup to get a positive contribution margin, therefore ISD will launch X73 on its price with sufficient profit which then beneficial to Zumwald AD as the holding company. General Transfer Pricing rule provide a good conceptual model for the managerial accountant to use in setting transfer prices and in most cases it is implementab le. However when the general rule cannot be implemented, it is advisable to use a transfer price based on market price, costs or negotiation.

Foundations of physiotherapy practice The WritePass Journal

Foundations of physiotherapy practice Introduction Foundations of physiotherapy practice IntroductionReferences:Related Introduction The aim of the essay was to explore COPD in both theory and practice in correlation with the three main body systems. The body systems investigated in detail where the respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and the neurological systems. Each system was researched for the effects it has on exercise intolerance, quality of life and the limitations that develop for a patient as a result of COPD. The role of pulmonary rehabilitation is inspected throughout the essay and its significance in the management of patients with COPD is expressed immensely within the context of the essay. There is an evidence based background to the exercise program used for the leaflet; it underpins the importance of using both endurance and strength training in order to improve some of the symptoms of COPD. The use of breathing exercises and techniques is also incorporated as it is a substantial part of the rehabilitation program. The role of the physiotherapist is fully established in the essay. The phy siotherapist is recognised for his/her role in each aspect in the management of the condition. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disease defined by airflow limitation that cannot be fully reversed. COPD is a combination of emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis is defined by excessive mucus secretions and a productive cough for a sustained period of time (more than two years). Emphysema is defined by destruction of the alveoli and smallest airways and secondary effects on lung elasticity, and other airways (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p.180).The airflow obstruction is generally progressive in nature correlated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to gases. Despite the fact COPD affects the lungs; it also contributes to a substantial systemic reaction (Celli et al., 2004).although evidence shows that no change in lung function (FEV1) occurs, no matter how radical the treatment for the patient may be. Even tough loss of lung function is not regained; affective pulmonary rehabilitation helps slow the rate of decline (Bellamy and Brooker, 2004, p.12). COPD is important common respiratory disorders in primary care. Diagnosis of COPD is often delayed until patients present with severe symptoms. There are a high percentage of individuals that are undiagnosed in the population. Aside from patients being advised to stop smoking, it is important that pulmonary rehabilitation is part of the management of this condition and physiotherapist understand how to prescribe appropriate exercise training for patients with COPD (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p.180).Patients with COPD are in the largest percentage of individuals referred for pulmonary rehabilitation. There is an increase in the evidence-based support for pulmonary rehabilitation in the management of patients with COPD (Nici et al., 2006). It addresses the numerous needs of the patient. It has many components which are highly effective in caring for the patient. Pulmonary rehabilitation incorporates the following: smoking cessation, education, exercise training, psychology i nterventions, physiotherapy, and nutrition. Exercise training is a vital component of pulmonary rehabilitation and is aimed at improving some of the restricting problems associated with the disease, such as dyspnoea and exercise tolerance despite the irreversible deformities in lung function (Tiep, 1997, p.1652). Management is essential in helping the patient have a better quality of life, as patients with COPD sink into an inactive and dependent state causing them to be at high risk of depression and anxiety. (Maurer et al., 2008). Depression and anxiety are addressed in the psychosocial component of the rehabilitation program (Nici, et al., 2006, p.1399). During the progression of COPD, all body systems in some way become affected (Tiep, 1997, p.1631).patients with COPD tend to stop or reduce their level of physical activity as exertion leads to the patient having unpleasant sensations. A vicious cycle can occur, with reductions in physical activities causing severe deconditioning, and more limitations in each system affected by the condition (Thomas, 2006, p. 62).The changes in each of these systems are coexisting factors that contribute to the exercise intolerance in patients with the disease. The respiratory system is affected greatly by COPD; it contributes to exercise intolerance in a number a ways. Ventilatory limitations occur for many reasons. An increase in both airway resistance and expiratory flow limitations causes a severe increase in the work of breathing. The elastic walls of the alveoli provide a certain amount of driving force behind the active process of exhalation (Rochester, 2003, p.61). Airflow obstruction leads t o impaired lung emptying and a higher end expiratory lung volume due to the loss in elasticity of the alveolar walls. This worsens during exercise leading to dynamic hyperinflation. Hyperinflation restricts the tidal volume response to excretion, flattens the diaphragm and the accessory muscles are then used to aid respiration, and   the muscle length-tension relationship of the respiratory muscles is altered forcing the muscles into a shortened position which puts them at a mechanical disadvantage. The degree of hyperinflation a patient is subject to is an important indicator of their exercise tolerance and dyspnea during exercise (Bellamy and Booker, 2004, p 23). Ventilatory   limitations to exercise causes interruption in gas exchange that emerges from the increase dead space to tidal volume ratio, ventilation-perfusion mismatch, and the reduction in diffusing capacity caused by the loss of alveolar/capillary connections. The increased dead space to tidal volume ratio in turn causes an increased ventilatory demand, for the same degree of bodily exertion (Rochester, 2003, p. 61). Other factors also further increase ventilatory demand these include, lactic acidosis and hypoxemia which directly or indirectly limit exercise tolerance (Nici et al., 2006, p. 1391). The musculoskeletal system is affected also, there is evidence showing that muscle dysfunction contributes to exercise intolerance in COPD.   The reduction in physical activities leads to damage in skeletal muscle function which in turn causes more symptoms at a less intensive level of work. Inactivity produces many structural and biomechanical changes in the skeletal muscle. Muscle strength is decreased in patients with COPD; peripheral muscle strength is to a much greater extent affected than upper limb muscles strength. The reduction in peripheral muscle strength may be directly linked with the fact there is a decrease in activity of the lower limbs in patients with COPD (Thomas, 2006, p. 63). There is also a reduction in endurance in both lower and upper limb muscles. Loss of lower limb muscle strength is equivalent to the reduction in muscle mass. With prolonged inactivity type 11a fibres (slow twitch fibres) convert to type 11b (fast twitch fibres), Reduction in fibre type an d decrease in cross-sectional of type 1 and 11a fibres is linked to muscle atrophy. Reduction in oxidative capacity and muscle atrophy is standard in patients with COPD. Deconditioning is an important factor in skeletal muscle dysfunction (Mador and Bozkanat, 2001). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease has an extensive impact on the cardiovascular system. The increased right ventricular afterload which is caused by the increased pulmonary vascular resistance resulting from the structural abnormalities in pulmonary circulation, and the hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction all contribute to the effects of COPD on the cardiovascular system. All of these processes lead to structural changes in the heart which include right ventricular dilatation and hypertrophy, to help conserve right ventricular output (Vonk-Noordegraaf, et al., 2005, p. 1901). The impaired ventricular filling is caused by hyperinflation and or other mechanical impairments. Cardiac output is relatively maintained in patients with COPD compared to normal individuals both at rest and during physical activities. Studies have proven that exercise training has no measurable impact on the changes in the cardiovascular system as the result of COPD. Like the irreversible effects COPD has on lung function, exercise training can slow it down but it can never be reversed back to normal no matter how extensive the treatment (Sietsema, 2001, p. 656-657). The neurological system is affected as a result of COPD. Neuropsychiatric disorders are common in patients with COPD, particularly depression and anxiety. The prevalence of depression is higher than anxiety it is over 20% higher than anxiety. They often go untreated in patients with COPD; the lack of adequate treatment leads to patients having a poor quality of life and is associated with premature death in COPD patients. The overall impact of depression and anxiety on COPD patients, their families, and society is important. Studies show that depression has been found to cause fatigue, dyspnoea, and disability (Maurer, et al., 2008, p. 43). Depression increases with hypoxemia, carbon dioxide levels, and dyspnea. Hypoxia in patients with COPD may be a major factor in the development of depression and anxiety due to lack of sufficient oxygen to the brain. However reduced physical capacity and negative self image may also be a causing factor in the development of the disease (Armstrong, 2010, p. 132). Pulmonary rehabilitation is the main intervention used to try and improve the systematic effects of COPD; its main concern is to control the symptoms and disease by including essential components such as the multidisciplinary team for support and guidance and the exercise training program for improvements in the patient’s physical limitations (Burton, et al., 1997, p. 879). The exercise training program of pulmonary rehabilitation must address the individual patient’s limitation to physical activity; these limitations may include ventilation limitations, gas exchange irregularities, and skeletal or respiratory muscle dysfunction. Exercise training aims to improve motivation for exercise, neuropsychiatric well being, decrease symptoms and improve quality of life. Moreover, the substantial improvement in oxidative capacity and efficiency of skeletal muscles has caused a decrease in alveolar ventilation for same degree of exertion. This can reduce dynamic hyperventilation, thus decreasing exertional dyspnoea (Aliverti and Macklem, 2001, p. 229). Pulmonary rehabilitation normally focuses on lower limb training, as loss of peripheral muscle strength in patients is high as loss of quadriceps muscle is reduced by up to 20-30% with patients in the moderate to severe phase of COPD. This is why exercise training is used to improve muscle strength. The dist ribution of muscle strength in patients with COPD is not equal between the lower and upper limb, there is evidence to prove the better preservation of the upper limb muscle strength (Thomas, 2006, p. 63). However upper limb exercises should be incorporated into the training program. Upper limb training results in an improvement in a patient’s ability to perform daily activities involving the upper body. Upper limb exercises also reduce dyspnoea and ventilatory requirements for arm elevation.   Evidence based guidelines recommend the use of upper limb exercise as part of the exercise program as it is safe and requires little equipment (Rochester, 2003, p. 70) There are two types of exercise training used in the rehabilitation program aerobic endurance and strength training. Aerobic endurance exercise training is the main component of pulmonary rehabilitation. Evidence from a number of randomized controlled trails supports the use of lower extremity exercise training, it has been found to significantly improve exercise tolerance, timed walking distance, sub maximal endurance time, and health related quality of life. Exercise training includes ground walking training, treadmill walking, cycle ergometery, and inspiratory muscle training (Gupta and Brooks, (2006), p. 182). Cycle ergometery training supervised by the physiotherapist to make sure the patient is performing the exercise at the right intensity, has been proven to improve exercise capacity in patients with COPD. Studies have shown that the combination of both inspiratory muscle training and cycle ergometery training has greater benefits for patients than just cycle ergometery alone. The addition of inspiratory muscle training enhances both inspiratory muscle endurance and strength, improves exerc ise capacity significantly more than just cycle ergometery training on its own (Wanke, et al., 1994, p. 2205-2211). Walking is an exercise prescribed to patients for endurance training, as it is a regular exercise that patients find easy and a large percentage of patients continue walking at home or after the rehabilitation programme. Patients are encouraged to walk to the point of breathlessness; this technique improves exercise tolerance in patients as they push themselves to get physically fit. The Physiotherapist gives support to patients, by reassuring them that breathlessness during walking doesn’t cause any damage to the lungs or heart it is beneficial in improving their quality of life (Bellamy and Booker, 2006, p. 115). Strength training is used in pulmonary rehabilitation for both the upper and lower body. In many studies patients rated their dyspnoea and fatigue the lowest after strength training. The strengthening exercises may include knee flexion and extension w hich works the quadriceps and hamstring muscles, also chest press which involves both pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi. Weights are used during each exercise and are altered increase or decrease the intensity. Strength training increases strength in all muscles that undergo the training this is due to muscle hypertrophy and improvements in neural recruitment patterns. Strength training has been proven by many studies to improve exercise performance and quality of life (Mador, et al., 2004, p. 2039-2041). Studies have supported evidence that endurance training has little effect on muscle weakness and muscle atrophy, two problems in patients with COPD and contributes to their exercise intolerance and poor quality of life. As a result most pulmonary rehabilitation programs combine strength and endurance training together as it is more beneficial to the patients. Studies have proven that the addition of strength training to endurance training produced a greater improvement in muscle mass and strength than endurance training alone (Ortega, et al., 2002, p. 670). Another study investigated the combination of both strength and endurance combined and found it was effective in reducing depression and anxiety. Moreover, there is evidence to confirm the beneficial effects of the three methods of exercise training (strength, endurance, and or combined) on the quality of life and level of dyspnoea in patients with COPD (Mador, et al., 2004, p. 2043). There is a debate as to whether high or low intensity training   in endurance and strength exercises should be used and to what beneficial effects either intensity will sustain in improving the symptoms of COPD. Low intensity training does result in improvements in symptoms, activities of daily living and health related quality of life, there is evidence to support the use of high intensity training producing greater physiologic training effects (Maltais, et al., 1997, p. 555-561). Training intensity that exceeds 60% of the peak exercise capacity is enough to cause some physiologic effects, even though higher percentages have been tolerated and are more beneficial. The effects of cycle ergometery training at high intensity work load were compared to low intensity work load in 19 patients with moderate to severe COPD. The group following the cycle ergometery at the high intensity work rate had a greater reduction in lactate production and ventilation requirements, although the low i ntensity group had a similar result but not as much significant gains in aerobic fitness (Rochester, 2003, p. 67-68). Therefore using high or low intensity training has beneficial effects, high intensity exercise training is more advantageous producing physiologic changes in patients that are capable to reach that level, low intensity exercise training is more tailored to the health benefits of the general population and for patients who are in a more fragile state (Calverley, et al., 2003, p. 468-470). Aside from endurance and strength training the pulmonary rehabilitation program has breathing exercises and techniques that are incorporated into the program. The role of the physiotherapist in the management of COPD is established especially in breathing exercises and techniques. Physiotherapists play a crucial role in the exercise, assessment and education aspects of the pulmonary rehabilitation program they are a valuable part of the multidisciplinary team. They are there to provide specialist advice and support for the patient, especially during an exacerbation, when patients have trouble clearing their chest secretions, and to help control any anxiety or panic attacks they may lead to hyperventilation. When physiotherapist helps patients clear chest secretions it often involves teaching the patient about the active cycle of breathing technique (ACBT) using forced expiration to enhance chest clearance. Physiotherapists also use techniques to reduce the work of breathing, which involves the use of breathing retraining or relaxed breathing control. Diaphragmatic breathing and pursed lip breathing are two examples of breathing retraining; these are of benefit to manage panic attacks and breathlessness. Physiotherapists also teach a patient varies positioning techniques to help with dyspnoea. They have a major role in pulmonary rehabilitation programmes, along with respiratory management they provide advice and support for patients with mobility problems (Barnett, (2006), p. 174). Physiotherapists are involved in educating and supporting patients in breathing retraining. The main goals of using diaphragmatic breathing and pursed lip breathing are to relieve breathlessness and encourage relaxation (Mikelsons, 2008, p. 3). Pursed lip breathing is a technique used where exhalation is accomplished through resistance created by narrowing (pursing) of the lips; it is often naturally taken up by COPD patients. Studies have shown that pursed lip breathing can have a positive effect on dyspnoea when performed by patients during exercise. Patients who experience reduction in dyspnoea due to pursed lip breathing also had reductions in end expiratory lung volume and increase supply in inspiratory muscle pressure-generating capacity. During breathing at rest and exercise pursed lip breathing contributed to a slower deeper breathing pattern in patients, and is a useful technique to apply when an onset of breathlessness comes upon a patient (Spahija, et al., 2005, p. 640-648 ). Diaphragmatic breathing is used as another technique to help with dyspnoea and dynamic hyperinflation. In diaphragmatic breathing physiotherapists teach patients to synchronize inspiration with abdominal expansion as they breathe slowly and deeply. On the exhalation the diaphragm is pushed up by the abdominal muscles which create a better length tension relationship and a better curved posture. This technique increases the capable force of the diaphragm as an inspiratory muscle. Diaphragmatic breathing has a significant increase in tidal volume and a major reduction in respiratory frequency which caused an increase in minute ventilation. In hypercapnic patients with COPD, diaphragmatic breathing helps with hyperinflation in these patients. However studies have shown that severely hyperinflated  Ã‚   patients are incapable of performing this breathing technique (Gigliotti, et al., 2003, p. 198). Secretion clearance is an important technique used for acute exacerbation management . Acute exacerbations are common in patients with COPD; they are associated with a poor quality of life and are a burden to both family and caregivers. Symptoms include dyspnea, purulent sputum, and an increase in sputum volume. Patient’s awareness of the symptoms of exacerbations and early intervention reduces the risk of hospitalization and leads to a better quality. Physiotherapists are important in providing such interventions to help patients with sputum clearance. Physiotherapeutic techniques used to help with sputum clearance include active cycle of breathing techniques (ACBT), percussions, vibrations, and shaking. ACBT consists of breathing control, lower thoracic expansion exercises and forced expiratory technique. ACBT aids bronchial clearance by improving mucociliary clearance while also decreasing adverse effects such as hypoxia and increased airflow obstruction. Compared to percussion, vibrations, and shaking ACBT has been proven to be the most effective techniqu e in chest clearance with over 80% of physiotherapists the UK using it always or often when treating patients with COPD. Studies have shown that ACBT helps improve oxygenation, assists in sputum clearance, reduces anxiety, and enhances health related quality of life (Yohannes and Connolly, 2007, p 110-113). Many patients with COPD adopt a forward leaning position to help with the feeling of breathlessness, this is a useful technique which physiotherapist teach patients to self manage dyspnoea, during the stable phase of COPD and when they get an acute exacerbation. There is evidence to reinforce the use of the forward leaning position to improve breathlessness and decrease work of breathing. This position promotes diaphragmatic function by allowing the shortened diaphragm to be lengthened by the movement of the abdominal content away from the diaphragm thus enhancing the length tension relationship. This position can be altered to suit individual, it can be used in everyday life such as standing leaning against a wall, window sill or shopping trolley. These functional positions enable patients to get out and improve both their breathlessness and quality of life (Mikelsons, 2008, p. 3). Studies support the use of breathing retraining, chest physiotherapy and exercise training as it contr ibutes to improvements in dyspnoea, functional exercise capacity, and quality of life in COPD patients (Guell, et al., 2000, p. 978). In conclusion, the importance of COPD as a disease is relatively high as it has been stated to be in the top four leading cause of death and disability in the world (Gupta and Brooks, 2006, p. 187). The considerable effects COPD has on the respiratory system are discussed showing the limiting effects it has on both ventilation and gas exchange all contribute to the exercise intolerance in patients. The musculoskeletal system is greatly hindered by the effects COPD has on the structural and biomechanical aspects causing limitations in the ability to exercise. COPD leads to cardiovascular problems which progressively get worse if patients aren’t introduced to the exercise training program to help slow down the deterioration. Anxiety and depression goes undiagnosed in a lot of patients with COPD but has been shown to contribute to both exercise intolerance and poor quality of life in patients. The intervention of the pulmonary rehabilitation program has been proven to help increa se exercise capacity, decrease dyspnoea and improve health related quality of life. The support and advice from the physiotherapist in the exercise training program, breathing exercises and techniques is a key element to the success of the pulmonary rehabilitation program. In light of all the advantages of the rehabilitation program there is still the unsubstantial effect it has on lung function in patients with COPD. References: Aliverti, A. and Macklem, P. (2001) How and Why Exercise Is Impaired in COPD. Respiration, 68 (3), pp. 229-239. Armstrong, C. (2010) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology: Application of Cognitive Neuroscience. United States of America: Springer Science and Business Media. Barnett, M. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Primary Care. United Kingdom: Whurr Publishers Limited. Bellamy, D. and Booker, R. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Primary Care. 3rd ed. United Kingdom: Class Publishing Ltd. Burton, G. et al., (1997) Respiratory Care A Guide to Clinical Practice. 4th ed. United States of America: Lippincott-Raven Publishers. Calverley, P. M. A. et al., (2003) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Arnold. Giggliotti, F. et al., (2003) Breathing retraining and exercise conditioning in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a physiological approach. Respiratory Medicine, 97 (3), pp. 197-204. Guell, R. et al., (2000) Long-term Effects of Outpatient Rehabilitation of COPD. Chest journals, 117 (4), pp. 976-983. Gupta, R. and Brooks, D. (2008) Aerobic Exercise for Individuals with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Physiotherapy Canada, 58 (3), pp. 179-186. Mador, J. and Bozkanat, E. (2001) Skeletal muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiratory research, 2 (4), pp.216-224. Mador, J. et al., (2004) Endurance and Strength Training in Patients with COPD. Chest journals, 125 (6), pp. 2036-2045. Maltais, F. et al., (1997) Intensity of training and physiological adaptation in patients chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. America journal of critical care medicine, 155, pp. 555-561. Mikelsons, C. (2008) The role of physiotherapy in the management of COPD. Respiratory Medicine, 4 (1), pp. 2-7. Nici, L. et al., (2006) American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society Statement on Pulmonary Rehabilitation. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 173 (12), pp. 1390-1413. Ortega, F. et al., (2002) Comparison of Effects of Strength and Endurance Training in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 166 (5), pp. 669-674. Rochester, C. (2003) Exercise training in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 40 (5), pp. 59-80. Sietsema, K. (2001) Cardiovascular limitations in chronic pulmonary disease. Medicine science in sports exercise, 33 (7), pp. 656-661. Spahija, J. et al., (2005) Effects of Imposed Pursed-Lips Breathing on Respiratory Mechanics and Dyspnea at Rest and During Exercise in COPD. Chest journals, 128 (2), pp. 640-650. Thomas, A. J. (2006) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: The contribution of skeletal muscle dysfunction to exercise intolerance. Physical therapy reviews, 11 (1), pp. 62-66. Tiep, B. (1997) Disease Management of COPD with Pulmonary Rehabilitation. Chest journals, 112 (6), pp. 1630-1656. Vonk-Noordegraaf, A. et al., (2005) Early Changes of Cardiac Structure and function in COPD Patients with Mild Hypoxemia. Chest journals, 127 (6), pp. 1898-1903. Wanke, T. et al., (1994) Effects of combined inspiratory muscle and cycle ergometer training on exercise performance in patients with COPD. European Respiratory Journal, 7 (12), pp. 2205-2211. Yohannes, A. Connolly, M. (2007) A national survey: percussion, vibration, shaking and active cycle of breathing techniques used in patients with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Physiotherapy, 93 (2), pp. 110-113.

Geography at Harvard

Geography at Harvard In the latter half of the 20th century, geography as an academic discipline suffered greatly, especially in American higher education. The reasons for this are undoubtedly many, but the biggest contributor was arguably a decision made at Harvard University in 1948 in which university President James Conant declared geography to be not a university subject. In the ensuing decades, universities began dropping geography as an academic discipline until it was no longer found in the nations top schools. But American Geographer, Carl Sauer, wrote in the opening paragraph of Education of a Geographer that the interest [in geography] is immemorial and universal; should we [geographers] disappear, the field will remain and not become vacant. Such a prediction is bold to say the very least. But, is Sauers assertion true? Could geography, with all its historical and contemporary importance, withstand an academic hit like it took at Harvard? What Happened At Harvard? Several key figures emerge in this debate. The first was President James Conant. He was a physical scientist, used to the rigorous nature of research and the employment of a distinct scientific methodology, something which geography was accused of lacking at that time. His charge as the president was to guide the university through the financially lean times in the post-World War II years. The second key figure is Derwent Whittlesey, the chair of the geography department. Whittlesey was a human geographer, for which he was heavily criticized. Physical scientists at Harvard, including many geographers and geologists, felt that human geography was unscientific, lacked rigor, and was not deserving of a place at Harvard. Whittlesey also had a sexual preference which was not as widely accepted in 1948. He hired his live-in partner, Harold Kemp, as a geography lecturer for the department. Kemp was considered by many a mediocre scholar which lent support to geographys critics. Alexander Hamilton Rice, another figure in the Harvard geography affair, founded the Institute for Geographical Exploration at the university. He was considered by many to be a charlatan and would often leave on an expedition while he was supposed to be teaching classes. This made him an annoyance to President Conant and the Harvard administration and did not help geographys reputation. Also, prior to founding the institute, Rice and his wealthy wife tried buying the presidency of the American Geographical Society, contingent on Isaiah Bowman, chair of the geography department at Johns Hopkins University, being removed from the position. Ultimately the plan did not work but the incident did create tension between Rice and Bowman. Isaiah Bowman was a graduate of the geography program at Harvard and was a promoter of geography, just not at his alma mater. Years earlier, a work of Bowmans had been rejected by Whittlesey for use as a geography textbook. The rejection led to an exchange of letters which strained relations between them. Bowman was also described as puritanical and it is supposed that he did not like Whittleseys sexual preference. He also did not like Whittleseys partner, a mediocre scholar, being associated with his alma mater. As a distinguished alumnus, Bowman was part of the committee to evaluate geography at Harvard. It is widely considered that his actions on the geography evaluation committee effectively ended the department at Harvard. Geographer Neil Smith wrote in 1987 that Bowmans silence condemned Harvard Geography and later, when he tried to resuscitate it, his words put nails in the coffin. But, Is Geography Still Being Taught At Harvard? Four Traditions of Geography Earth Science Tradition - earth, water, atmosphere, and relationship to the sunMan-land Tradition - humans and the environment, natural hazards, population, and environmentalismArea Studies Tradition - world regions, international trends, and global relationshipsSpatial Tradition - spatial analysis, geographic information systems Researching Harvard academics online reveals the degree courses for each program are included to show the geographic nature of material being taught within them. Its also important to note that geography was likely ousted at Harvard because of clashing personalities and budgets cuts, not because it wasnt an important academic subject. One could say that it was up to geographers to defend the reputation of geography at Harvard and they failed. Now it is up to those who believe in the merits of geography to reinvigorate it in American education by encouraging and promoting geographic teaching and literacy and supporting rigorous geography standards in schools. This article is adapted from a paper, Geography at Harvard, Revisited, also by the author. Important References: Annals of the Association of American Geographers Vol. 77 no. 2 155-172. Vol. 77 no. 2 155-172.

Arab-Israeli Conflict and its impacts on International relations Research Paper

Arab-Israeli Conflict and its impacts on International relations - Research Paper Example That action immediately led to the first military conflict between Israel and few Arab countries, followed by a series of major Wars as well as minor conflicts between them throughout the second part of the 20th century. Among these conflicts, the Suez Crisis and the Six Day War were considered to be the important wars, because those wars not only impacted the geographical ‘make-up’ of the area but also impacted the international relations of various countries. That is, the international relations of the involved Arab states, Israel as well as then superpowers, United States and Soviet Union underwent changes, with alignments and realignments happening. USA and Soviet Union played ‘major’ roles in impacting or even ‘dictating’ many countries’ international relations in that period. Because of that role, equations between them, as well as their relations with the Arab states and Israel evolved maximally due to the Arab-Israeli conflicts impacting the International relations from 1945. Although, during the First Arab-Israeli conflict, USA and Soviet Union sided with Israel, realignment started happening before the Suez crisis and during the Six Day War, wit h Soviet Union siding with the Arab states, while USA supported Israel and also tried its best to maintain its neutral stance. This paper will discuss how Arab-Israeli conflicts reached the crescendo during the Suez Crisis and the Six Day War impacting the international relations of not only the involved countries but also other major countries. Genesis of the Conflict Before the World War I (1914-1918), the present day territories of Israel and Palestine were under the control of the Turkish Ottoman Empire.1 However, with the Arabs feeling discriminated under Turkish control, they fought and drove out the Ottomans with the aid of the British, who were against the Ottomans for their support of Germany. British elicited the support of the Arabs to fight against the Ottomans by promising to give them, the conquered land. In 1916, the British Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon gave a promise to the Arab leadership that in the aftermath of the war, former Ottoman provinces can be given to them. â€Å"I am empowered in the name of the Government of Great Britain to give the following assurances†¦Great Britain is prepared to recognise and support the independence of the Arabs in all the regions within the limits demanded by the Sherif of Mecca.†2 However, in 1917, the British Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour gave another commitment to the leading Zionist leader, Lord Rothschild that Britain is committed to â€Å"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people†, which came to be referred as the as the Balfour Declaration. 3 When the British got the territories through the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War, they minimally allocated the territories to the Arabs, and kept Palestine under their control.4 This mixed stance of the British continued for years to come. During these years, there was heightened inflow of the Jews into these territories. The Jewish Immigration to the Holy Land, which was go ing on since the 1880s