Advantages Of Organisational Change Commerce Essay

Advantages Of Organisational Change Commerce Essay The crux of this report is a discussion on organization change and whether the changes are good or it does damages that are not reparable. Firstly, organisational change is an essential part of todays globalised work life. In moderns economy, teams and organisations face rapid change like never before. Globalisation has not only boosted the markets and opportunities for more development and profit, it also provides opportunities for organisational members to process. However, in general, change processes make demands on both employees and management, regardless of the content of the change process. Facing of the tide of globalisation, one of the dominant disputes that human resource professionals face is what method to improve organisational competitive advantage in the hastily changing environment. Organisational change come about multiple reasons, it is undertaken to ameliorate the accomplishment of that particular organization or a portion of the organization, for instance, a proc ess or team. For organisations to be able to prosper, it is essential for them to go through an important alteration at different sections during their growth. Significant organisational change occurs when the overall strategy of an organisation changes, for instance, in order to achieve appropriate outcomes, accumulation or take away a big portion or usual procedure, and/or desire to alter the nature on how it works. Organisational change can bring about pros and cons. Advantages of Organisational Change Change can assist a business to keep up with industry trends, making it more appealing to promising consumers as well as maintaining present consumers. For instance, one way to make sure that a business does not fall behind when an opponent established and markets a successful new product is by establishing and advertising a related product of its own. In the process of organization change, employees will be able to acquire new skills, seek new opportunities and exercise their creativity in ways that eventually favors the organization through extra ideas and increased commitment. Knowledge transfer takes place during the process when people have idiosyncratic information that is valuable to other people, and thus learning takes place during the change. In addition, the capability to clasp change can assist employees in a business by developing new opportunities. For instance, a worker who actively applies himself/ herself to learning the new office technology can also train others who are more uncertain. This leadership role has caused the employee to position himself/ herself as a person who has the ability to guide others and is capable of assuming extra responsibilities, making her a credible candidate for approaching promotion. Furthermore, businesses that are capable at handling or even embracing change can promote an environment that stimulates innovation. Employees will be more willing to think in a more creative manner if their ideas are acknowledge by a manager or the business owner. By stimulating employees to think in a more creative manner will enable a business grow in long run. Either a good product or a marketing idea will enables a small business to achieve it success. Finally, an erudite or personnel change in an organization can result in employee attitudes and morale being positive. When there is a change in human resources philosophy, it enables a much relaxed work ambience, for instance, dress down day on Friday; this kind of idea will definitely make the employees overjoyed. When an inflexible manager is substitute with one who always listens to employees ideas and feedbacks, employees will feel that their efforts are acknowledged and that they will give in their best regarding their job functions. Disadvantages of Organisational Change When major change takes place, the impact of transformation of an organisation can be effective and may frequently create complicated challenges. Change can present a risk and certain level of danger. The end results can be very costly and sometimes beyond recovery in terms of time, money, human resources, or equipments. It is known that human nature oppose change, especially if it is perceived to influence ones lives adversely. When an organsation is undergoing organisational change, such as: re-structuring, or merging, it will result in employees going through the feelings of tension, stress, and uncertainty, which results in the impact on employees productivity output, achievement, and engagements toward the organisation (Ashford, et. al., 1989). In other words, the aftermath can be out of discipline. The norm prefers foreseeable future but change disrupts it, which cause confusion and potentially an erosion of assurance. An employee lose confident and their ideas are not supported and acknowledge by the higher management may increase the stress of the employees and this might lead to staff not performing well in their daily work routine. Secondly, during organisational change, staff members might experience loss of attachment. Most of the time, change requires working with new members, such as a new leader, or a new team. Gradually, employees will feel attached and develop a sense of faithfulness to their colleagues. Having to break up this faithfulness, can often be pressurised and make people anxious. Employees feel that the environment is doubtful, low tolerance of ambiguity, less freedom and ideal time for work, thus they will are unwilling to take risk, and therefore becoming less motivated and committed to making contributions. Thirdly, organisational changes might lead to staffs having low morale. When the staffs opposed a change that is taking place in the workplace, they become less confident and felt hopeless about their professional future with the organisation. This is specifically so when there is a deficiency of communication within the organisation regarding the change. Lowered morale can disperse throughout the whole company, which will result in issues with both recruiting and retention of the workers. Lastly, organisation change may result in less efficiency in employees. This is due to the employees spending much time focusing on withstanding the changes taking place in the organisation, which will results them becoming less attentive in their daily work routine which is affiliate with their jobs. Being less attentive in their work will reduce the level of adeptness and achievement among staff; this can influence the organisations fundamental. In reality, a decreased level of adeptness is the main reason why there is an organisation change, as changes are frequently build to reform a more cogent and productive company. Conclusion Change within an organisation will enable some type of improvement within an organisation. Even though the main intention is to bring out positive effects, but these changes frequently brought about some affection and sensation to those who are affected indirectly and directly. Although change may be a certain portion of handling profession, it is often not welcomed by employees, leaders or owners of the business. Employees are afraid to leave their comfort zone or they are afraid that they are not able to adapt to a different situation. Changes can affect a business success in long run and have a positive impact on it, while on the other hand a change that is short term can be agonizing. In addition, change cannot be avoided. Some types of changes that will tend to affect employees such as reducing bonus, reducing monthly salary or even take away their benefits. All this changes might result in employees being devastated, especially to those who are the sole breadwinner. It is a challenge for organisations to make adeptness and betterment within its anatomy, while at the same time managing employees self-esteem and support for the organization and its responsibility. In conclusion, if changes are made, especially large-scale reorganisations, it is essential to communicate and associate all of the employees to the extent in which it can ensure a successful development.

Task Duration in the Construction and Engineer Industry

I will be comparing the Services Industry abilities in project planning to that of the Construction and Engineering field. The services industry falls short of CE (Construction and Engineering) in many ways and there is a lot of room for improvement. However, the two industries are very different in nature. Construction and Engineering has a long history of project management focus. It was civil engineers and architects that pioneered project management long ago in the early1900’s (Pinto, 1995, p. 2 ). In the 1950’s, construction and engineering organizations really started to systematically apply project management tool and techniques. Henry Gantt was an engineer! From my experience, project managers in the SE industry are not trained especially for this role. Often we are in a functional role within the company and given a project to manage as extra responsibility. The SE industry is also a much more customer-focused business. It’s interesting to note that customer satisfaction runs high in the journal’s statistics, despite its low scores in other areas. James Harrington (2000) said, â€Å"Quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations at a cost that represents value to them. † Project Managers in the SE industry will work harder to satisfy customers, allowing scope creep and the like in order to provide a better project in spite of time and cost delays. The following statistics summarize the journal article results for the CE and SE industry. SE cost and schedule overruns and organization support were the largest negative variances against CE. Project Planning Success in CE and SE Industry CESEBetter/(Worse) Cost Overrun (%)17%23%(35%) Schedule Overrun19%27%(42%) Performance8. 18. 32% Customer Satisfaction8. 18. 32% Organizational Support3. 83. 2(16%) In a recent study of 100 companies, only 37% of major SE projects were completed on time and only 42% were completed on budget (Gordon, 1999). I think the answers to improving cost and schedule overruns lie in improving the organizational support first. Mochal (2003 p. 3) said, culture plays a big role in how successful SE’s are in executing projects. SE’s typically have no formality or consistency in project management processes. Each time a new project comes up, the wheel is re-created. SE’s need a good, scalable project management process where teams are generally going to create and follow a work plan, and can use standard processes to effectively handle risk, scope change and issues. SE’s also need better governance. By this, I mean management needs to be more engaged and interested in projects. If management starts projects and leaves the project manager in a leadership vacuum, it’s hard to be consistently successful. Accuracy in time and resources are also important factors to successful project planning. They are however, not as critical as in the CE business. If a task is over duration in the SE industry, it’s not like a multi million-dollar crane is sitting idol. The cost repercussions are not as easily quantified. There should also be some leniency to this within the SE industry. Task duration in the CE industry is easier to plan for. Historical data is readily available on pouring concrete foundations, laying brickwork, etc. Within SE, the schedule may include a one-time task that the project manager has never performed before. Due to the complexity of the project the scope may not be wholly known making task duration even harder to calculate. While there is wide room for improvement in the delivery of time and cost estimates, the SE industry should continue to look and rely on its customer satisfaction rates. Projects should not be considered a success purely in terms of its timeliness. The Sydney Opera House was seen by most as a stupendous failure. It was a music hall with poor acoustics, stunningly over cost and behind schedule. Decades later, this same structure in a national treasure to Australians, its massive cost and schedule overruns long ago forgotten. References: Gordon Mochal, T (2003) Tools and Techniques, Workforce Management, (Online) Available from : http://articles. techrepublic. om/5100-10878_11-5035216. html (Accessed April 12, 2010) Pinto J (1995) Successful Project Managers, Leading Your Team to Success, Project Management Journal (Online) Available from: (accessed April 9, 2010)

Only The Heart Novel Essay

Only The Heart is a very successful novel presented by many â€Å"narrators† in both in the past and present. This novel portrays the hardships and â€Å"suffering† that a Vietnamese family endures through the years of approaching communism. Their desperate flee from the only home they have ever known and the loved ones that they may never see again, all in search of a place where there is freedom and â€Å"hope†. Only The Heat is a story that focuses on the Vo family’s â€Å"suffering†. The novel shows the hardships and struggles that a Vietnamese family endures through the years of approaching communism. It is also about their desperate flea from the only home they have ever known and the loved ones that they may never see again, all in search of a place where freedom and â€Å"hope† were to be found. The novel itself is a simply told yet moving story of the Vo family, who come to Australia as refugees in search of â€Å"hope†, as a result of the â€Å"suffering† in The Vietnam War. Many members of the family in turn become â€Å"narrators† and perhaps because of the unfamiliarity of the names, readers must looking back to the family tree, at the front of the book, while the reading of the first few chapters. This novel portrays the hardships, struggles and â€Å"suffering† that a Vietnamese family endures through the years of approaching communism. Even after arriving in the lucky country Australia there is still â€Å"suffering†, caused by Hai Nguyen’s vicious gang. There are many â€Å"narrators† in the novel but the two main persons through whom the story of is told is Toan, the youngest son and Linh, Toon’s cousin and adopted sister (after her mother Mai sacrificed her life for her). The last person creates a real overview of what has happened and the deepest thoughts and feelings of these two people, as they escape their country as refugees to Malaysia and then Australia. As you can see Only the Heart, is a successful novel composed by Brian Caswell and David Phu An Chiem, about the suffering the Vo family had to endure in the search of â€Å"hope†. With a terrifying side to life which is beyond even the vast imagination of the many Australians. The novel emphases how lucky we are to live in a country where things such as freedom, opinions and safety, (these are things taken for granted) are considered a right.

The Catcher and the Rye / Huckleberry Finn Essay - 1251 Words

The American Webster’s dictionary defines innocence as, â€Å"Freedom from harmfulness; inoffensiveness.† Although this definition is the one which is most commonly used, many authors tend to twist or stretch the meaning in order to fit the material to which it applies. For example, the way J.D Salinger applies innocence to his work is quite different from the way Mark Twain uses innocence. Innocence also changes accordingly with the time period. The definition of innocence is dynamic with respect to author and time period, as illustrated in The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D Salinger and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain. Throughout history the concept of innocence in literature has been a topic in which author’s have held an†¦show more content†¦(Bloom 7) Salinger’s definition is apparent when looking at the novel The Catcher in the Rye with an analytical eye, because everyone who is capable of loving is either a child or an adult who is influenced by a child. In turn, the adults who are incapable of loving are defined by Holden Caulfield, the protagonist in The Catcher in the Rye, as phonies or prostitutes. (Bloom 7) Holden mentions in the novel the following, â€Å"Its Funny. You take adults, they look lousy when their asleep and they have their mouths way open, but kids don’t. Kids look all right.† (Salinger 159) This quote is a clear example of a stronger appreciation for the youth as opposed to the adults. After a comparison, Mark Twain’s definition of innocence is quite different. Twain defines innocence as the naà ¯ve mindset of children. His defini tion consists of a belief that because children don’t know, or understand something, they can’t question its validity and form opinions against it. Huck Finn’s spelling of â€Å"sivilization† is a pure example of this. Huck’s views and opinions towards civilization are shown through his spelling. He is naà ¯ve to what civilization really is, therefore he can not form an opinion against it. (Bloom 12) Twain’s use of innocence is merely symbolism. He uses a misspelled word to emphasize the ignorance of children; but, however ignorant they may be, their reason for being so is their innocence. A comparison of J.D Salinger’s works and those of Mark Twain,Show MoreRelatedReview Of The Catcher Rye And Huckleberry Finn 1497 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish Combined Coursework: Comparative Essay The theme of rejection is highly predominant in both The Catcher in the Rye and Huckleberry Finn. Both plotlines constantly intertwine with the concept of dismissal from peers, family and society. Despite being set in eras nearing a century apart; these novels perfectly encapsulate conflicts within their cultures. Huckleberry Finn is set in the 1840’s – a time when slavery was still yet to be abolished in America’s southern states. Throughout theRead MoreEnglish, Analytical Essay, Catcher in the Rye and Huckleberry Finn1507 Words   |  7 PagesHuckleberry Finn and The Catcher in the Rye essay The novels ‘The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn’ and ‘The Catcher in the Rye’ are both set in times where the expectations of society differed from the ones of today. Huckleberry Finn is set in the late 1800s, pre USA civil war and in a time where slavery was an accepted occurrence and the escape of a slave was seen as legally and morally wrong. This was also a time in which church attendance and education were seen as tokens of respectability. ARead MoreThe Search for Self in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and the Catcher in the Rye1982 Words   |  8 PagesAdventures of Huckleberry Finn and Catcher in the Rye Everyone wants to know who they are, and why they were put here. People often wonder about their futures and what kind of person they really are. 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Abnormal Psychology Essay - 855 Words

Abnormal Psychology Abnormal psychology in the area within psychology that is focused on maladaptive behavior-its causes, consequences, and treatment. Abnormal psychology deals with how it feels to be different, the meanings the get attached to being different, and how society deals with people whom it considers to be different. The spectrum of differences is wide, ranging from reality defying delusions and severe debilitations to worries and behavioral quirks that we would be better off not having but do not significantly interfere with our daily lives. An example of the milder end of the spectrum is a man who was an eminently successful district attorney, was elected governor of New York on three occasions, and was almost elected†¦show more content†¦Joan was a very successful business women working for a major stock broker firm. She was quickly moving up the ladder and had just received a big promotion on what she hoped would be her way to the top. Houghtons normal life was abruptly interr upted one day when she broke down and began to see things and also hear things that did not exist. She had been in and out of mental health care her entire adult life, but now she had reached the breaking point. She began to lose touch with everyone in her life. She stopped showing up for work and eventually was committed to a mental institution by her family. Houghtons break with reality required an intense treatment during a long period of hospitalization. There are many possible explanations for Joans break down. Her life had been fairly normal expect when she was 6 years old her father molested her. Joan told her mother a few weeks later. Knowing that her husband probably did molest her she tried to convince Joan that it was just bad dream. She just could not imagine asking her husband if her had done this horrible act. She was very much afraid of him. So the molesting continued for another three years. These events haunted her entire life, and most likely were the cause of her mental break down. (Houghton, 1982,pp. 548-549) Governor Dewey and Joan Houghton might be described asShow MoreRelated Abnormal Psychology2516 Words   |  11 PagesThe field of abnormal psychology engages with the obscure line between normal and abnormal behaviour. This blur is as a result of the dissonance that occurs when the two terms are defined for example, when cultural perspectives are taken into consideration-where behaviour (for example sake, experiencing hallucinations) considered deviant in one population is normalcy in another. In attempt to make the field comprehensive a middle ground was determined by drawing on the common elements or patternsRead MoreThe Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior2157 Words   |  9 PagesThe Psychology of Abnormal Behavior can be describe as has having a behavior that deviates form what is the expected and normal. If abnormal psychology is the study of unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and though, then Hollywood depiction of mental disord er in the movie Helen meets the criterion of the teaching of Dr. Conley’s Abnormal Psychology class. Goole Play synopsis of the 2008 Sandra Nettelbeck’s Helen. On the outside, Helen( Aheley Judd) has the perfect life a loving family, a beautifulRead MoreAbnormal Psychology967 Words   |  4 PagesAbnormal Psychology Roshaun Hatchett PSY/410 April 25, 2012 Dr. Christopher Daub Abnormal Psychology Abnormal psychology has been in existence for more than a century. Mental illness was approached from a spiritual point of view. Individuals of certain beliefs would misdiagnose others from the spiritual perspective and would assume that evil spirits controlled his or her’s physical, mental, and observable world (Tyrer, 2010). The following will be covered in this document: theRead MoreAbnormal Psychology1605 Words   |  7 PagesAbnormal Psychology Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. It seeks to comprehend people by understanding mental functions and social behavior. It also explores neurobiological and physiological processes that can drive cognitive functions and behaviors. It is this drive to understand mental processes that pushes psychologists to want to learn about what is normal and abnormal behavior. People have tried for thousands of years to understand and define abnormal behavior. In the past 100Read MoreAbnormal Psychology. Classification and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior20707 Words   |  83 Pages3 CHAPTER Classification and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior CHAPTER OUTLINE HOW ARE ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR PATTERNS METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 80–99 CLASSIFIED? 70–77 The Clinical Interview The DSM and Models of Abnormal Behavior Computerized Interviews Psychological Tests STANDARDS OF ASSESSMENT 77–80 Neuropsychological Assessment Reliability Behavioral Assessment Validity Cognitive Assessment Physiological Measurement SOCIOCULTURAL AND ETHNIC FACTORS IN ASSESSMENT 99–100 SUMMING UP 100–101 TRead MoreQuestions on Abnormal Psychology4701 Words   |  19 Pagesand perceptual factors.   C.Medical, sociological, and psychological factors.   D.Cultural, medical, and gender factors. Answer Key:  A Question 2 of 50 1.0 Points Concerning the cause of dissociative disorders, _______ dominate(s) this field of psychology.   A.theory and speculation   B.statistical analysis from experiments   C.observation and patient interviews   D.experimental research with controlled groups Answer Key:  A Question 3 of 50 1.0 Points Jill was the victim of a fender-bender accidentRead MoreThe Psychology Of Abnormal Psychology1580 Words   |  7 PagesBefore discussing the definition of abnormal psychology, it is first important to identify the real meaning of the word â€Å"Abnormal†. For laymen to be asked of the definition of the word Abnormal, it is common to encounter answers such as people and behaviors that is weird, strange and odd. These characterizations are not enough to fully describe the true and deeper meaning of the word Abnormal. It is important to consider characteristics in defining abnormal such as whether the behavior is causingRead MorePathological Psychology : Abnormal Behavior948 Words   |  4 Pages According to the modern perspective of abnormal psychology, abnormal behavior exists when an individual is behaving dangerously and/or showing patterns of behavior that are dysfunctional. Nevertheless, determining insanity among sanity has proven to be much more complicated than it sou nds. An individual whose behavior strays from societal standards is not necessarily abnormally deviant or insane. John Hu simply exhibits behaviors that are different from that of typical European/French social normsRead MorePathological Psychology : Abnormal Psychology1204 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinition for behavior that is labeled abnormal. It is this way due to the fact that society in its entirety has to agree on normative behavior. Because society will never have the exact same views, opinions, beliefs, or culture, an unmistakable definition will not occur. A simplified definition of this behavior is unusual conduct that goes against what is classified as ordinary in society. The study of this sort of behavior is abnormal psychology. Abnormal psychology focuses on atypical sequences of conductRead MoreSymptoms And Symptoms Of Abnormal Psychology1527 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to Cherry (2016), abnormal psychology is a branch within psychology that focuses on behaviour th at is unusual and not deemed as normal within society. This branch of psychology is composed of a variety of disorders and their causes as well as possible management and/or treatment. With this in mind and within this assignment, I will discuss the causes of abnormal behaviour, discuss the causes and symptoms of mood disorder as well as discuss the background and importance of Sigmund Freud

The Doctrine Of Administrative Decision Maker - 1026 Words

Mason CJ in Quin endorsed Gummow J’s statement of law (extracted directly above), with one exclusion that an administrative decision maker cannot be estopped in the circumstances so as to fetter a statutory discretion or require an ultra vires act. His Honour said: ‘[the] availability of estoppel against the Executive, arising from conduct amounting to a representation, when holding the Executive to its representation does not significantly hinder the exercise of the relevant discretion in the public interest. And, as the public interest necessarily comprehends an element of justice to the individual, one cannot exclude the possibility that the courts might in some situations grant relief on the basis that a refusal to hold the†¦show more content†¦Ltd. v. Whitfeld [1919] HCA 69; (1919) 27 CLR 268, at p 277; Ansett Transport Industries (Operations) Pty. Ltd. v. The Commonwealth [1977] HCA 71; (1977) 139 CLR 54, at pp 74-76; Malvaso v. The Queen (1989) 64 ALJR 44, at p 47; 89 ALR 34, at p 37; Birkdale District Electric Supply Co. v. Southport Corporation (1926) AC 355, at p 364; Cudgen Rutile (No. 2) Ltd. v. Chalk (1975) AC 520, at pp 533-534; Southend-on-Sea Corporation v. Hodgson (Wickford) Ltd. (1962) 1 QB 416, at pp 423-425; W estern Fish Products Ltd. v. Penwith District Council [1978] EWCA Civ 6; (1981) 2 All ER 204. Accordingly, it has been said that a public authority ... cannot be estopped from doing its public duty, to use the words of Lord Denning M.R. in Lever Finance v. Westminster London Borough Council (1971) 1 QB 222, at p 230. See also Rootkin v. Kent County Council (1981) 1 WLR 1186; (1981) 2 All ER 227.’ Despite the fact that the judgements of Gummow J in Kurtovic and Mason CJ in Quin allows for the prospects of estoppel to develop in public law, the courts since have generally not departed from the traditional rule. Mason CJ’s views in Quin have been discussed in several

Schema Mapping free essay sample

The approaches which are used by P2P systems for defining and creating the mappings between peers’ schemas can be classified as follows: 1- Pairwise schema mapping, 2-mapping based on machine learning techniques, 3- common agreement mapping, - 4-schema mapping using information retrieval (IR) techniques. 1-Pairwise Schema Mapping: In this approach, each user defines the mapping between the local schema and the schema of any other peer that contains data that are of interest. Relying on the transitivity of the defined mappings, the system tries to extract mappings between schemas that have no defined mapping. Piazza follows this approach : An Example of Pairwise Schema Mapping in Piazza The data are shared as XML documents, and each peer has a schema that defines the terminology and the structural constraints of the peer. When a new peer (with a new schema) joins the system for the first time, it maps its schema to the schema of some other peers in the system. We will write a custom essay sample on Schema Mapping or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Each mapping definition begins with an XML template that matches some path or subtree of an instance of the target schema. Elements in the template may be annotated with query expressions that bind variables to XML nodes in the source. Active XML [Abiteboul et al. , 2002, 2008b] also relies on XML documents for data sharing. The main innovation is that XML documents are active in the sense that they can includeWeb service calls. Therefore, data and queries can be seamlessly integrated. another example that follows this approach: The Local Relational Model (LRM): LRM assumes that the peers hold relational databases, and each peer knows a set of peers with which it can exchange data and services. This set of peers is called peer’s acquaintances. Each peer must define semantic dependencies and translation rules between its data and the data shared by each of its acquaintances. The defined mappings form a semantic network, which is used for query reformulation in the P2P system. Piazza Querying Reformulation Example: Hyperion [Kementsietsidis et al. , 2003]: generalizes this approach to deal with autonomous peers that form acquaintances at run-time, using mapping tables to define value correspondences among heterogeneous databases. Peers perform local querying and update processing, and also propagate queries and updates to their acquainted peers. Table from Airline ‘A’ Table from Airline ‘B’ Mapping Tables PGrid [Aberer et al. , 2003b]: also assumes the existence of pairwise mappings between peers, initially constructed by skilled experts. Relying on the transitivity of these mappings and using a gossip algorithm, PGrid extracts new mappings that relate the schemas of the peers between which there is no predefined schema mapping. 2-Mapping based on Machine Learning Techniques: This approach is generally used when the shared data are defined based on ontologies and taxonomies as proposed for the semantic web. It uses machine learning techniques to automatically extract the mappings between the shared schemas. The extracted mappings are stored over the network, in order to be used for processing future queries. * GLUE [Doan et al. , 2003b] uses this approach as the following: Given two ontologies,for each concept in one, GLUE finds the most similar concept in the other. It gives well founded probabilistic definitions to several practical similarity measures, and uses multiple learning strategies, each of which exploits a different type of information either in the data instances or in the taxonomic structure of the ontologies. To further improve mapping accuracy, GLUE incorporates commonsense knowledge and domain constraints into the schema mapping process. * The basic idea is to provide classifiers for the concepts. To decide the similarity between two concepts A and B, the data of concept B are classified using A’s classifier and vice versa. * The amount of values that can be succ essfully classified into A and B represent the similarity between A and B. - 3- Common Agreement Mapping: In this approach, the peers that have a common interest agree on a common schema description for data sharing. The common schema is usually prepared and maintained by expert users. APPA [Akbarinia et al. , 2006a; Akbarinia and Martins, 2007] makes the assumption that peers wishing to cooperate. * e. g. , for the duration of an experiment, agree on a Common Schema Description (CSD). * Given a CSD, a peer schema can be specified using views. This is similar to the LAV approach in data integration systems, except that queries at a peer are expressed in terms of the local views, not the CSD. Another difference between this approach and LAV is that the CSD is not a global schema, i. e. , it is common to a limited set of peers with a common interest (see Figure). Common Agreement Schema Mapping in APPA * Thus, the CSD does not pose scalability challenges. When a peer decides to share data, it needs to map its local schema to the CSD. Example: * Given two CSD relation definitions r1 and r2, an example of peer mapping at peer p is: In this example, the relation r(A;B;D) that is shared by peer p is mapped to relations r1(A;B;C), r2(C;D;E) both of which are involved in the CSD. In APPA, the mappings between the CSD and each peer’s local schema are stored locally at the peer. Given a query Q on the local schema, the peer reformulates Q to a query on the CSD using locally stored mappings. AutoMed [McBrien and Poulovassilis, 2003]: is another system that relies on common agreements for schema mapping. It defines the mappings by using primitive bidirectional transformations defined in terms of a low-level data model. 4- Schema Mapping using IR Techniques: This approach extracts the schema mappings at query execution time using IR techniques by exploring the schema descriptions provided by users. PeerDB [Ooiet al. , 2003a] follows this approach for query processing in unstructured P2P networks. * For each relation that is shared by a peer, the description of the relation and its attributes is maintained at that peer. The descriptions are provided by users upon creation of relations, and serve as a kind of synonymous names of relation names and attributes. When a query is issued, a request to find out potential matches is produced and flooded to the peers that return the corresponding metadata. By matching keywords from the metadata of the relations, PeerDB is able to find relations that are potentially similar to the query relations. The relations that are found are presented to the issuer of the query who decides whether or not to proceed with the execution of the query at the remote peer that owns the relations. Edutella [Nejdl et al. , 2003] also follows this approach for schema mapping in super-peer networks. Resources in Edutella are described using the RDF metadata model, and the descriptions are stored at super-peers. When a user issues a query at a peer p, the query is sent to p’s super-peer where the stored schema descriptions are explored and the addresses of the relevant peers are returned to the user. If the super-peer does not find relevant peers, it sends the query to other super-peers such that they search relevant peers by exploring their stored schema descriptions. In order to explore stored schemas, super-peers use the RDF-QEL query language, which is based on Datalog semantics and thus compatible with all existing query languages, supporting query functionalities that extend the usual relational query languages.